Creating the underwater scene

Once the foundation rocks and substrate have been positioned, other forms of decorative material can be arranged, e.g. bogwood, flowerpots, slate, ceramic drainpipes, and cork bark.

If digging fish are to be housed, everything must be secured to prevent rockfalls or other toppling items falling against the glass and cracking it! Silicone sealant or underwater epoxy resin can be used to secure pieces that are a potential risk. Avoid making unstable piles of rocks from small left-over pieces – they always fall over, perhaps trapping fish, damaging plants, or even shattering the aquarium.

Bogwood and cork bark have a tendency to float until they become thoroughly waterlogged, which, under normal circumstances, may take several weeks. To enable such materials to be used immediately, they can be weighted down by attaching them to rocks using nylon fishing line or strong cotton. This sort of arrangement is etisily camouflaged using plants and the like.

Room to manoeuvre

At this stage do not overwhelm the aquarium with roekwork and other decorations. Space must be left for the addition of heaters, in-tank filters and other devices.

Plants will also appreciate room to grow and develop, and fish must have space to swim about in!

Heaters

Immersion heaters are normally provided with a ‘holder’ – a clip with suckers – to attach them to the glass, so that water can circulate freely around them. Heaters in contact with, for example, the substrate, or which are not fully submerged, may overheat and crack their tubes. Heater/stats are best positioned at an angle of about 45 degrees and in a good flow of water. Heat rises, so this prevents the thermostat from detecting the heat from the element too soon and prematurely disconnecting, with the result that the aquarium fails to be maintained at the preset temperature. Likewise, if using ’separates’, do not position in-tank heaters close to thermostat sensors. Heater/stats and external thermostats are best wired into a circuit without a switch, either to a cable tidy or straight to the mains. In this way, the heating cannot be switched off accidentally.

The heating system can be installed once the aquarium has been filled with water, but should not be switched on yet. Don’t forget the thermometer!

Installing an air pump

Air pumps are commonly sited beneath the tank and the tubing run up to the top of the aquarium.

Unfortunately, when the power is off (intentionally or because of a power cut), the airline can act as a siphon, drawing water from the tank, through the air pump, and onto the floor! Avoid this by fitting an anti-siphon device between the pump outlet(s) and the device(s) supplied. If there are several of the latter, a set of gang valves will distribute the air as required. Wire the air pump and any other electrical equipment operating biological filtration to an unswitched terminal to avoid accidental disconnection.

Starting up

The hood, complete with fluorescent tubes, can now be positioned and the control unit connected to the cable tidy or multisocket.

Check the wiring one last time, and if all is in order, connect the cable tidy or multisocket to the main electrical supply and switch on. As the water will be cold, the heater should now be operating and its ‘on’ indicator light illuminated. If not, then disconnect everything from the mains and feel the heater: it should be warm. If not, recheck the wiring. If it is correct, you should suspect a faulty piece of equipment (another good reason why livestock are not introduced at this stage!). If you have a professional electrician assisting, he will be able to test all the electric circuitry and equipment electronically, locating any problems quickly and easily.

The filtration should also be switched on to test that it works. Many aquarists, however, prefer to start their filters running permanently a day or two after the tank has been planted, to allow the plants a chance to start rooting before subjecting them to a current. The lighting can also be tested, but it is unnecessary to leave it on until the plants have been introduced.

Over the next 24 hours, the aquarium water will reach approximate operating temperature, although some fine adjustment may be necessary. Expect a range of 1 to 1.5ˇăC (2 to 3ˇăF) between on and off -this is perfectly acceptable. Pump and/or air flow adjustments may also prove inevitable before a perfect balance is achieved.

Make sure you pick a spot at least 100 yards away from the trail and any water sources. Avoid meadows and bogs, since tents and footprints leave permanent marks in their soft, wet soil. Find a place with enough open space to accommodate your dropcloth, tent, cooking area, and any supplies or equipment you will have nearby. If you’re in a group, you may want enough space for a “community area” where everyone can sit around, cook and eat together.

When you leave your campsite, take a final look around to ensure there are no obvious signs of you having been there.

Look overheadˇŞmake sure there are no dead branches or dangerous looking pine cones above the place where you plan to sleep, cook, eat, and sit.

Once you have found a good spot for sleeping, lay out your dropcloth in the place you plan to pitch your tent or set up a tarp. If there’s enough room, leave space between tent sites to ensure a little more privacy, (after all no one wants to hear you snore).

Check to make sure there’s nothing sharp or hard underneath the drop cloth that could puncture the floor of the tent or keep you awake at night. Move aside any pine cones, rocks, branches, etc., that will be in the way, and set them nearby – you should scatter them back over the area before you leave. Try to leave the site in the same shape as you found. You should leave no sign of your brief visit to the wilderness.

Some people like to dig a small trench around their tent or tarp to keep running water from entering or pooling underneath the dropcloth. If you expect heavy rain, you might want to do this, but in general avoid making permanent disruptions or alterations to the campsite.

After setting up your tent, unroll your sleeping pad and take your sleeping bag out of its stuff sack. If the pad is the inflatable type it’s good to give it several minutes to expand and fill with air. (Back home, be sure to store it in a flat and unrolled position so the foam doesn’t become permanently flattened.) Do the same for down bagsˇŞtake them out of their stuff sacks so the down can regain its loft before you climb inside for the night.

If you plan to use your inflatable pad for lounging on around the campsite, make sure it’s protected with a durable cover. The company that manufactures these padsˇŞCascade DesignsˇŞnow produces a cover that converts the pad into a comfortable camp chair. If you are using an ensolite or neoprene pad you do not have to worry about punctures, but watch for sharp sticks poking through the pad or causing tears, or heat from the stove which can melt both types of pads.

Once everyone has selected a sleeping area (with or without a tent), look for a good “kitchen.” Chances are you will not have a table, but look around for boulders or logs of convenient heights for cooking on. If none are available, be ready to do a lot of sitting as you cook and eat on the ground. Avoid moving large things to accommodate your desire for “furniture.” Rearranging small rocks and logs is OK as long you do not damage anything, and return everything to their original place.

If you use rocks near the cooking area do not allow them to become blackened from stoves or campfires. Make sure trash bags are kept near the kitchen to hold all wrappers, peelings, leftovers, and garbage that will be packed back out. Do not let trash blow away from the campsite, and make sure trash bags are secured for the night so small animals can’t chew through the bags and scatter it around.

When you leave your campsite, take a final look around to ensure there are no obvious signs of you having been there. Use a leafy branch to sweep away tent imprints, and pick up any last pieces of trash you may have overlooked.

“Leave the place better than you found it, and encourage others to do the same…”

This article is designed to lead you through setting up a basic aquarium, although everyone’s set-up will be different and procedures may have to be altered to accommodate the individual. It is strongly recommended that a specific plan of action, based on these general principles, is drawn up to suit every new aquarium. Your plan should include a timetable, especially if there are glues and paints needing time to dry and/or you need to organize outside help.

Before you start, it is worth reviewing once again the suitability of your chosen site as regards viewing potential, accessibility, safety, access to electricity, water, light levels and drainage. Once the tank is installed it will be too late for second thoughts!

Making preparations

It is essential, before you start, to make sure you have all the necessary aquarium equipment and all the tools required at the ready, plus any assistants you may need. Not everyone is fully conversant with electrical wiring, although most aquarium procedures are straightforward, so the help of an electrician or experienced hobbyist may be necessary, if only to demonstrate so that you can do the same job should it be necessary at a later date. Tanks are heavy items and many will require the assistance of one or more fit adults to lift them. All other surplus members of the family (especially excited young children and pets) are best encouraged to go to the park, or otherwise excluded until the majority of the work is completed.

As we are dealing with water, gravel and rocks, a certain amount of mess is to be expected. Make sure carpets are protected with plastic sheeting or several layers of newspaper. That way any spillage can be quickly and effectively cleared up without permanent damage.

Dress for the occasion – glass is very dangerous stuff, so wear stout gloves and shoes when moving your aquarium, and make sure arms and legs are covered, even in hot weather.

Fitting the background

It is generally best to measure up and fix the background when the tank is empty and before positioning it, as the task becomes increasingly difficult when the tank is against a wall, full, or you are fighting electric wires.

Plasticized ‘backgrounds on a roll’ are easily attached using adhesive tape. If you wish to paint the back, the glass must first be thoroughly de-greased with methylated spirits (or other ‘cleaning’ alcohol), otherwise the paint will soon peel off. Cork tiles and other buoyant materials mounted inside the tank should be stuck into place using silicone sealant if they are not to pop up to the surface within a few days! At least 24 hours will generally be needed for paints and glues to dry, before you can proceed.

Preparing the interior decor

Meanwhile, the substrate and rockwork can be washed. This is a time-consuming job, but is essential if murky, polluted water is to be avoided. It also provides an opportunity to check for ‘foreign bodies’ that might pollute the water, ‘faking a few handfuls at a time, put the substrate into a sieve or bucket and wash under a running tap until clean, stirring with tt wooden or plastic spoon, or hands, until the water runs clear. Rocks are best scrubbed in hot water (without soap) to get them scrupulously clean.

At this stage, decorative structures that require glueing can be constructed. Silicone sealant or underwater epoxy resin is ideal for attaching rock to rock, wood to wood, or rock to wood. Ensure that the components are completely clean and dry, otherwise they will fall apart very quickly once under water, and allow at least 24 hours’ drying time before use.

If you like eggs, they can be carried in specially designed plastic containers, or cracked open and packed in wide-mouthed water bottles (but only if you plan to use them within a day or two). Otherwise, I’ve found dried eggs to be reasonably tasty substitutes for making omelettes and scrambled eggs. Bring along sun dried tomatoes and other seasoning powders to mix in for flavor. Just remember you’ll need a frying pan and oil for preparing them. For easy clean up, and to keep oils to a minimum, choose a pan with a non-stick teflon like coating.

Complete pancake mixes are commonly available in supermarkets. They only require water to prepare the batter, and once again, fruits, chocolate chips and others goodies can be added for flavor.
Lunch: Since this often takes place on the trail, keep it simple. If you like sandwiches, make them with bagels or pita bread, which pack better than traditional sliced loaves. Ifyou like cheese, select the kinds that are wrapped in waxˇŞthey will keep for several days without refrigeration.
For children, the ever-popular peanut butter and jelly sandwich is a good choice. Use reusable plastic tubes (available in backpacking stores) which can be filled with a mix of the two ingredients. Then, simply squeeze the blend out onto the bagels or pita at lunchtime.

For short trips, fresh fruits and vegetables, such as pre-sliced carrot and celery sticks, are also healthy lunch snacks. They can be carried in the wide-mouthed water bottles. Spice them up with dips of hummous, flavored cheese spreads, etc. Leftovers can be diced up and added to the dinner pot.

Dinner: A large pot of pasta can be supplemented with a can of meat, various vegetables, or simply eaten as is. Use dried milk powder to thicken up sauces and add protein, vitamins and minerals.

For simplicity, dinner is one meal where pre-packaged backpacking food comes in handy. I like the quick-cooking freeze-dried Mountain Chili made by Alpine Aire. It has a good flavor on its own, and it’s vegetarian, as it contains a mix of pinto beans, soy protein and corn, making it a good source of protein and complex carbohydrates.

It used to be, when choosing between prepackaged freeze-dried foods and supermarket items, it was the old “time vs. money” trade-off. But now, there are many supermarket items that are quick and easy to prepare. Look for instant soup mixes that can be turned into a thick casserole or stew with the addition of quick-cooking pasta shells and a can of tuna.

I’ve also noticed more and more items in natural food stores that would be suitable for backpacking. These include dried hummous (ground up garbanzo bean paste) which turns into a tasty and nutritious spread when mixed with water. For vegetarians, I’ve even seen freeze-dried tofu!

For a group or family, the best solution is to distribute the weight among each person based on their strength and ability level. If you all feel loaded down and can’t pack anything else, and there’s still some unpacked clothes or gear lying around, it’s time to reconsider how much you’re trying to carry. It’s important to have the equipment you need when you reach your campsite, but you do not want to lose a camper due to exhaustion or injury along the trail because they are carrying too much weight.

In general, men seem to prefer keeping the weight in their backpacks high and close to the body to help maintain a good sense of balance. Women’s center of balance is lower, near the hips, so they may prefer to pack their heavy gear lower in the pack.

There are also a few differences between the way you load an internal versus external frame pack. One similarity between internal and external packs is in the way sleeping bags are carriedˇŞ both types of packs are designed to carry them at the bottom. Most external frames carry the sleeping bag strapped onto the frame on the outside of the pack itself. This means you need a sturdy waterproof stuff sack to store the bag in to protect it from rain, sharp branches along the trail, etc. Internal frame backpacks also carry the sleeping bag at the very bottom of the back, but typically they have room inside for the sleeping bag, in a separate compartment located at the bottom.

The next “level,” as you move up the pack, is the area near your lower torso. Many people prefer to use; this level for heavier and denser equipment, such as cookpots, food, stoves, etc., and also for equipment that is not used frequently throughout the day. This is because this gear will be covered with other equipment, clothing, etc., and therefore is more difficult to reach. Keep things like water, snacks, first aid kit, warm jacket and raingearˇŞthe items you might need in a hurryˇŞpacked closer to the top of the pack.

Most people strap their lightweight sleeping pad at the very top of the pack, either by securing it under the flap that covers the top opening or via attachment points and straps on the top pocket. In many packs, the top flap or pocket also contains small storage compartments for maps, compasses, sunglasses, and other small, lightweight items that are nice to have handy. These pockets can also be reached by one of your hiking buddies. On brief water or snack breaks, when there’s not enough time to stop and take off backpacks, it’s not unusual for people to reach into each other’s packs and find water bottles, snack bars, etc. that are loaded in these top pockets.

Inorganic contaminants

Tap water may contain small quantities of various metallic salts, either naturally or as the result of environmental pollution. It may also become contaminated with lead or copper from domestic pipework, and for this reason water from the hot water cylinder, or water that has stood in the pipes for some time, should not be used.

Chemicals used by water companies to kill bacteria (chlorine and chloramine) and crustaceans are also toxic. Water companies are required to provide water with safe levels of contaminants, but unfortunately what is ’safe’ for humans may be lethal to delicate fish.

Purifying tap water

The simplest way of making tap water safe for hardy tropical fish is to add a conditioner to remove, or nullify, the effects of chlorine and chloramines; if only chlorine is present (ask the water company) then it will dissipate if the water is allowed to stand overnight, preferably with aeration, or can often be driven off by running the tap hard into a bucket. Some conditioners also nullify other toxins, e.g. metallic salts; not all conditioners remove all toxins, so always buy one appropriate to your needs.

To improve tap water still further, we can use special resins (available from aquatic dealers), usually in special tap water treatment filters, to remove nitrates, phosphates and sulphates – all of which are less than conducive to fish health and can encourage unsightly algae in both freshwater and marine aquaria.

In-tank pollution

In-tank inorganic contamination may derive from unsuitable decor or equipment, or the accidental influx of chemicals (such as cigarette smoke, insecticide sprays, aerosol furniture polish, paint fumes etc.). While to our knowledge no smoker has ever been implicated in the demise of any fish (at least through smoking!), most other extraneous toxins are (often quickly) lethal, and prevention is the only remedy.

Organic contamination

Organic contaminants may be present in tap water, usually derived from agricultural fertilizers or resulting from the impossibility (tit least affordably) of totally purifying recycled water. Aquarists whose water comes from rivers, or river-fed reservoirs, should be particularly vigilant. Artesian supplies and rain (or spring) water reservoirs are generally more pure.

Organic pollution within the aquarium comes mainly from the metabolic processes of its occupants (plants and animals). This pollution is controlled by the nitrogen cycle, and an understanding of the latter is essential to the aquarist.

The nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the means by which waste products are dealt with biologically by Nature, both in the wild and in our aquaria.

The first part of the cycle deals with the decomposition of the remains of plants and animals, and the excreta of the latter. These are initially broken down into highly toxic ammonia (also excreted by fish) and associated compounds, which form the diet of a genus of bacteria called Nitrosomonus. These bacteria convert the highly toxic ammonia to slightly less toxic nitrite in the first stage of the cycle.

Next, another genus of bacteria, called Nitrobacter, convert nitrite into nitrate. Nitrate is not particularly harmful to most fish in reasonable quantities, though tolerance levels vary from species to species. It may be used in part by plants as natural fertilizer.

Both Nitrosomonus and Nitrobacter bacteria are aerobic, i.e. they need oxygen to survive, breed and perform their tasks. In Nature – and in the aquarium – they inhabit any suitable surface such as rocks, wood, sand, gravel and plant leaves.

Ammonia, nitrite and nitrate cannot be seen in the aquarium water, but test kits are available to test for the presence of all three.

Water changes

In all of the biotopes we have looked at, the water is constantly being replenished or recycled – otherwise the environment would soon stagnate and become toxic to all aquatic life. As aquarium water is ’static’, it is up to you to change a certain percentage, thus reducing any nitrate build-up and replenishing minerals used up by plants and fish.

How much is ‘topped up’ depends on the aquarium and its occupants, but a good starting point is 25% weekly for fresh water, and 15 to 25% every two weeks for salt water. We have already seen that by measuring the amount of water introduced into the aquarium when it is first set up, we can assess the net volume; and now, using our chosen percentage, we can accurately replace the correct amount.

Used water is removed with the aid of a bucket and siphon tube (sometimes connected to a gravel cleaner). By putting one end of the tube into the tank and the other into the bucket, water can be drawn off via the siphon effect. To start the siphon simply give a quick suck on the ‘bucket’ end of the tube, but if you are worried about getting a mouthful of water, aquatic stores sell siphon-starting bulbs.

Replacement water may have to be prepared in advance to match the chemistry of the aquarium. Hardness, pH and temperature are important factors, as is specific gravity where marine aquaria are concerned.

Pour or siphon the new water into the aquarium, slowly and carefully so as not to disturb fish, plants, and other decor.

Cleaning filters

Power (internal and external) and sponge filters will require attention on a regular basis if they are not to clog up with detritus. Any purely mechanical media can be rinsed under the tap or replaced. Chemical media such as carbon are best replaced before they become exhausted. Biologically active media, however, must be treated differently. If they are washed under the tap, chlorine and chloramine will destroy the bacteria and leave the aquarium totally unprotected. It is therefore extremely important to rinse biological media in aquarium water only. If cleaning is carried out at the same time as water changes, the old water can be used for this purpose and then discarded. Never rinse any media actually in the aquarium!

Never replace more than 50% of biological media at a time (30% is better), or the filler will have to be matured from scratch; and, if possible, clean only this percentage of media at any one time. It is wise to reduce loading (i.e. feeding) for 24 hours before and after filter maintenance.

With freshwater tropicals, if the ‘daily feed’ maturation method has been used, all or the bulk of the population can be added at one time, provided they are fed only very lightly while the filter takes up the load. This also avoids the need for quarantining successive batches. With delicate marine organisms, however, one or two at a time is the golden rule.

When deciding what fishes to buy, remember not to exceed the permissible stocking density of the aquarium, and, in particular, take into account the fact that many fish are sold as young specimens and will grow! All calculations must therefore be made on the ultimate size of the fish, not size when purchased. Of course, the aquarist does not have to keep purchasing fish until the maximum stocking level is reached, but may decide to cease stocking at any time to maintain a particular display community.

Bagging and transportation

Fishes are normally packed in clear plastic bags, often in a brown paper outer or carrier bag so that the fish cannot see out and panic at finding themselves suspended in mid-air! Never carry fishes home ‘unshielded’, unless you want them to die immediately of shock.

Some fish bags have their corners rounded so that fishes cannot get trapped and injured in the ‘point’. If ordinary bags are used, it is worth asking to have bags ‘cornered’, i.e. the corners tied with rubber bands or taped off. A dealer who does this without your asking is a very good dealer indeed.

If you are travelling a long distance (say, over an hour), ask for the fish to be double-bagged, with oxygen. This will ensure that they arrive in good condition and not stressed by a shortage of oxygen in the travelling water. Two bags, one inside the other, will also safeguard against leaks. If you don’t already have one, ask the dealer for a polystyrene fish box. Place the bags in it, packing tiny spaces with crumpled newspaper to avoid excessive heal loss (or overheating) and disturbance while travelling.

Unpacking

On arriving at home, turn off the tank lights and undo the bags, then suspend them in the top of the aquarium while the water temperatures equalize. Some people may tell you to mix some aquarium water with that in the bag to avoid chemical shock, but with freshwater fish this achieves nothing, as it takes them 24 to 72 hours to adjust to any change in water chemistry, and any major change is likely to prove fatal whatever you do at this stage. You must ensure that there is no such major change. Try to keep stress to a minimum -the acclimatization period should be as short as possible, and the bags undone before they are placed in the tank (so they don’t have to be taken out again).

Once the temperatures have equalized, gently upend each bag so that the fish can swim out. Make sure that they have till done so!

Most fish will swim around quite happily in their new home after leaving the bag and the lights can be switched back on after an hour or so. However, a few may be stressed enough to lie on the bottom or hide among the plants. On no account should they be disturbed by prodding or poking. Leave them in peace, with the lights out, and it is very likely that they will be fine on inspection the next morning.

When first starting out along a new stretch of trail, watch the ground carefully. The trail may be slick from moss, mud or some other hazard that’s not immediately obvious. Take your time and get used to the feel of balancing an additional 25 to 40 or more pounds on your back. Watch where you put your feet and do not assume every rock or log is solid. Test things firstˇŞlearn how to balance your weight on one leg while checking the stability of a stepping stone or log bridge with the other.

Some people like to carry along a hiking stick or an old ski pole for extra balance. These are also useful for gauging the depth of streams before wading in, holding low branches out of the way, leaning against while taking a rest, etc. Walking sticks and ski poles are both soldin outdoor stores, but buying an old ski pole at a swapmeet for $4-5 is probably a better bargain.

practice walking at an even, moderate pace that can be maintained comfortably for a few hours. Work at developing consistencyˇŞbeing able to cover long distances at a moderate, steady pace is the key to reaching your goal: a campsite several miles down the trail. As you hike across level ground, you should be able to breathe comfortably enough to carry on a conversation with your hiking partners. If you are consistently out of breathˇŞunless you are climbing a steep hill or hiking at high altitudesˇŞyou are hiking too quickly.

If you are traveling with others who hike much faster or slower than the rest of the group, do not worry about keeping everyone together all the time. Each person’s speed will vary, depending on their age, fitness level, amount of weight they’re carrying, etc. On average, people hike at about one mile per hour, but it’s rare to find many people who hike along at exactly the same pace. Still, don’t get too spread out along the trail. You may have an emergency situation where everyone needs to get together quickly.

If one person is much faster than the rest, designate her or him to be in charge of periodic rest breaks at certain times and specific agreed-to places along the trail. Consult your trail maps and find likely places that look level, have water nearby, etc. Or plan to stop once an hour to check in and make sure everyone is making progress, drinking enough water, not feeling overloaded or developing blisters, etc.

Uphill, slow your pace accordingly. Stop as needed and catch your breath. If you are not only hiking up a steep trail, but doing so at higher elevation than you are used to at home, you will need to allow your body time to adjust to working at increased altitude and decreased oxygen levels.

Practice using “rest steps” to conserve energy. As you step forward, rest your full weight on one leg, allowing the other a brief “rest period” between steps. The leg holding the weight should be completely extended (straightened) while the other leg prepares to swing forward. As that foot touches down, transfer the weight forward and straighten that leg, giving the back leg a rest, and so on. This is a very slow, measured step, but doing this from time to time will help avoid developing sore quadriceps (the muscles along the front of the thigh that extend the leg while jumping, climbing, bicycling etc.).

If your fishes are unwell, then unless they have obvious symptoms of a pathogenic disease, assume that the problem lies in your water, and check that it is as it should be. Often all that is needed is an extra partial water change to reduce a raised nitrate level; even if the water tests as alright, it is astonishing how often a water change solves the problem.

The infective agents of some diseases, such as costiasis, bacterial fin rot, and fungus, may be present in any water but affect only fishes weakened by environmental problems. In such cases medication is required, but unless the environmental problem is remedied too, the disease is likely to recur. In addition to poor water quality, incorrect water chemistry and stress can also make fish vulnerable to illness. Prevention is the best policy.

Medications

Nowadays there are excellent proprietary remedies for many diseases; equally there are some which purport to cure certain conditions but may not be as effective as they claim. Where we recommend proprietary remedies, it is likely that any reputable brand will work; where we mention prescription drugs, then assume the worst about aquarium remedies. If we say there is no effective medication, then believe us! Beware of ‘cure-all’ medicines, and never use any treatment unless you are quite sure what you are treating. Random dosing in the forlorn hope of a cure is pointless and dangerous.

Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding dosage; never add a bit extra for luck, as that bit may be the difference between death for pathogens and death for fish. Always complete the course of treatment; some pathogens can be treated only at particular stages of their life cycle, necessitating repeated treatments over a suggested period.

Not all medications are suited for all fishes, and some arc specific to fresh or salt water. Some are lethal to marine invertebrates, and many harm plants and filter bacteria. If necessary, make use of a hospital tank.